The enduring legacy of Ancient Roman inventions and innovations

Ancient Roman inventions and innovations did not collapse with the Roman Empire. Even after thousands of years, the skillful work of the Romans can still be seen in daily life. According to Science magazine, the Romans, who had an empire covering much of Europe, Western Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean, had immense power and influence in the ancient world. From the founding of Rome in the 8th century BC until the collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century, Roman technology influenced some of the tools, architecture, and urban structures of the modern world. According to Nature magazine, the Romans were masters of early environmental engineering, using water and knowledge of physics to produce energy, for example, in mills. According to Agronomic Crops journal, they maximized crop yields on farms by using crop rotations and the 'food, feed, fallow' system. However, not every ancient innovation can be attributed solely to the Romans. For example, according to the Journal for the History of Astronomy, the first calendar was not a Roman invention, but the widespread use of the Julian calendar by the Romans taught the world a way to track time that was adopted by a large majority. HYPOCAUST CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM The Romans invented an early method called the 'hypocaust' system to efficiently distribute heat. This heating system could heat the air in rooms up to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius). The system operated with a furnace built into the floor of a structure. The hot air produced by the furnace passed through channels called 'hypocausts,' which were composed of columns, and then it was distributed to the walls of the house through a chimney. According to the working principle of the hypocaust, there were two floors: the lower floor had closely spaced terracotta columns about 60 cm in height, and the second floor was built on these columns. The space formed between the columns and the two floors was heated by a furnace called 'praefurnium.' This Roman invention was forgotten in the West after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. SEWAGE SYSTEM Ancient Rome hosted some of the world's first sewage systems. These underground sewers were first constructed around 500 BC and consisted of massive, carved stone tunnels. According to the Water Pollution Control Federation's journal, many modern city sewers resemble those in ancient Rome, although their purposes may differ. In the modern world, the primary function of a sewer is to remove unhealthy waste from urban areas. However, in Rome, their main task was to drain excess water that could flood the streets. Some homes were directly connected to Rome's enclosed drainage system, while others discharged their sewage into the streets, which was later flushed away by washing the streets and directing the waste into the sewer system. The sewage then passed through an extensive network of tunnels until it reached the Tiber River, which was the main river of Rome. Sewage architecture has not changed much since the construction of these ancient structures. CITY GRID LAYOUT According to the American Journal of Archaeology, the grid layout of cities was one of the forms adopted by the ancient Romans to divide and measure their lands. Later, this grid formation, which organized Roman territories into conquered regions, now shapes large cities with roads and streets. The Romans were quite skilled at transforming barren land into settled cities, as many towns under the Roman Empire were expanded and redeveloped. Although grid design may seem simple today, before the Romans began producing mass road grids, buildings and other city features generally followed the shape and geology of the land. The concept of large towns and cities was also introduced to many countries by the Romans. The intersecting street layout created central squares known as 'insulae' for commerce. According to an article published in the Journal of Space Syntax, this structure served as an inspiration to subsequent city planners. ROAD STRUCTURES To create a smooth surface, flat stone slabs were carefully fixed into the cement. The thickness of these stones was about 15 cm. The cement, consisting of fine sand and gravel, was well-bonded to secure the top layer in place. For making the coarse concrete, smaller stones of about 5 cm were used along with the cement mortar. Large flat stones were evenly laid at the bottom of the road. The small gaps between the stones allowed water drainage. To form level foundations, the ground was smoothed with compacted sand or dry soil. PERMANENT AND SOLID CONCRETES With the progress in technology and knowledge, human-made products are continuously improved over time. However, according to an article in Nature magazine, the concrete made by the Romans was actually stronger than our modern material. For instance, while salty water erodes modern concrete within a few years, some parts of the sea walls built by the Romans about 2,000 years ago remain intact. Details about how Roman concrete was produced have been lost over time. To uncover the Roman construction secret, scientists at the University of California, Berkeley Laboratory examined the mineral components of ancient marine concrete and found that it used a mixture of lime and volcanic rock. This created a mortar and volcanic tuff. To enhance its strength, the mortar was placed in seawater. Water molecules reacted with the ash, hydrating the lime and binding them together, forming a strong calcium-aluminum-silicate-hydrate. Even structures not underwater were durable. For example, the skillful technique used by the Romans, who employed volcanic rock and ash to build the Colosseum, has relatively preserved this famous wonder. BOOK BINDINGS Although the Romans were distant from being the first to leave written records, they are recognized for their shift from scrolls to book-like parchments, as reported by BBC Culture. Instead of using modern-day paper, they utilized wax-covered tablets bound together, known as 'codices.' According to the Journal of Neurosurgery, the wax was incised with a sharp tool. These documents were thinner than the original large clay tablets they were initially written on, allowing for easier portability, contributing to the development of literacy. The use of codices was also more convenient than parchments. Later, lighter animal skins replaced wax tablets. SURGICAL OPERATIONS According to an article published in the Archive of Oncology, the Romans invented many surgical instruments and disseminated knowledge about surgical procedures. Most of these medical innovations occurred on the battlefield. According to Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, some of the Greco-Roman tools that helped shape modern surgery include bone drills and forceps. Bone drills were used to remove diseased bone and resembled modern-day corkscrews in appearance. Forceps were among the most common surgical instruments during the Roman era. They were used to extract small bone fragments from the body. According to Queensland University Medical School, ancient Roman literature records some of the earliest uses of syringes. These syringes were used to apply medical ointments.